Evolving Elegance: The History of the Terno

HOW THE TERNO TOOK SHAPE

Words by PIE GONZAGA
Web design & development by FRANCES TO

Beatrice Luigi Gomez wears a denim terno

Banig-inspired terno ensembles by Ivarluski Aseron for Ternocon 2020, photo by Patrick Diokno

Even in all its iterations, you will always see its stiff sleeves like arches, tall and exuding power. We’ve seen it on pageant queens, brides and their mothers during weddings, under the warm boutique lights in high-end shopping centers, and in the caring hands of dressmakers in Divisoria.

Photo: Banig-inspired terno ensembles by Ivarluski Aseron for Ternocon 2020, photo by Patrick Diokno

idely treated as formalwear, designers are now taking the terno’s signature silhouette to the streets and to everyday dress.

Widely treated as formalwear, designers are now taking the terno’s signature silhouette to the streets and to everyday dress.

Military-inspired jacket terno by Hannah Adrias, photo by Miguel Alomajan for Inquirer Lifestyle

Patricia Prieto in a terno top with floral details by HA.MÜ

Heart Evangelista in a pink top with tulle sleeves from She By Hoa Nguyen

Terno top embellished with distressed gauze by Hannah Adrias for Ternocon III, photo by @takumori_ on Instagram

Set of 6 images from top to bottom: 1. Military-inspired jacket terno by Hannah Adrias, photo by Miguel Alomajan for Inquirer Lifestyle 2. Patricia Prieto in a terno top with floral details by HA.MÜ 3. Heart Evangelista in a pink top with tulle sleeves from She By Hoa Nguyen 4. Abstract print dress from VINTA Gallery 5. Woven fabric terno from Kultura 6. Terno top embellished with distressed gauze by Hannah Adrias for Ternocon III, photo by @takumori_

Set of 6 images from left to right: 1. Military-inspired jacket terno by Hannah Adrias, photo by Miguel Alomajan for Inquirer Lifestyle 2. Patricia Prieto in a terno top with floral details by HA.MÜ 3. Heart Evangelista in a pink top with tulle sleeves from She By Hoa Nguyen 4. Abstract print dress from VINTA Gallery 5. Woven fabric terno from Kultura 6. Terno top embellished with distressed gauze by Hannah Adrias for Ternocon III, photo by @takumori_

would only have to scroll through the local Instagram fashion scene to find the sleeves on blouses paired with jeans—definitely off-kilter. In creating the terno, designers have also been exploring a wide array of textiles and fabrics, like the linen and rayon most popular with minimalistic styles, as well as denim.

The reinvention of the terno was perhaps catalyzed by the nostalgia that pervaded the internet and creative culture during the COVID-19 outbreak. People were searching for ways to look into a future that didn’t involve their bleak present, so they took inspiration from the past instead. But let’s make one thing clear: the terno has never left the Filipino wardrobe. And to say it’s only changing now is to ignore its hundreds of years of evolution.

1. Kaayo, Mila Terno Top 2. Aranaz, Carrie City Black Bag 3. Gucci, Interchangeable Bezel Watch 4. La Rosa, Bubble Earrings 5. Overcast, Mack Sunnies 6. Sebastian & Savannah, Tabertha in Black Kroc Heels 7. The Frankie Shop, Sasha Wide Leg Jeans

1. KAAYO Mila Terno Top 2. OVERCAST Mack Sunnies 3. ARANAZ Carrie City Black Bag 4. LA ROSA Bubble Earrings 5. THE FRANKIE SHOP Sasha Wide Leg Jeans 6. GUCCI Interchangeable Bezel Watch 7. SEBASTIAN & SAVANNAH Tabertha in Black Kroc Heels

1. KAAYO Mila Terno Top 2. ARANAZ Carrie City Black Bag 3. GUCCI Interchangeable Bezel Watch 4. LA ROSA Bubble Earrings 5. OVERCAST Mack Sunnies 6. SEBASTIAN & SAVANNAH Tabertha in Black Kroc Heels 7. THE FRANKIE SHOP Sasha Wide Leg Jeans

THE 1500s

rior to the arrival of the Spanish ships helmed by Ferdinand Magellan, trade routes already ran between the islands that would come to be known as the Philippines.

Prior to the arrival of the Spanish ships helmed by Ferdinand Magellan, trade routes already ran between the islands that would come to be known as the Philippines.

Necklace with gold pendants shaped like suso (snail) shells, from the Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas

From the Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas: 1. Penannular barter rings 2. Patan-aw earrings 3. Arm bangles 4. Square quatrefoil earrings 5. Kandit royal belt 6. Forearm bands 7. Kamagi necklace 8. Kandit sash finials

From the Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas: 1. Penannular barter rings 2. Patan-aw earrings 3. Arm bangles 4. Square quatrefoil earrings 5. Kandit royal belt 6. Kamagi necklace 7. Forearm bands

with neighboring countries like China, Indonesia, and Malaysia, various pieces of jewelry and clothing would become part of the indigenous Filipino wardrobe. This includes the sinina, a Chinese-influenced jacket worn by men and which was cropped to expose the midriff,¹ as well as a few other garments that, as you’re about to see, would be carried over the centuries to come. Rich deposits of gold in the land also made it possible for the clothing of the nobility to be ornament-heavy. Some of these accessories include belts, bracelets, necklaces, and gold teeth.²

he bottom garments for women reflected the typical Southeast Asian dress of the time, sharing similarities with the more popular sarong.

The bottom garments for women reflected the typical Southeast Asian dress of the time, sharing similarities with the more popular sarong.

Tagalog maginoo and his wife, from the Boxer Codex

Visayan datu with his wife, from the Boxer Codex

Tapis refers to a piece of cloth wrapped around the waist to create a skirt usually of a length below the knee. Patadyong is also wrapped around the waist, but is tubular in form, meaning that two ends of the cloth are joined to create the tube. The latter more closely resembles the malong of the Muslim communities further south and west, in Mindanao and Palawan, respectively. All three skirts were straight, or sometimes followed the natural silhouette of their wearers. The women’s baro was a typically long-sleeved, lightweight and sheer blouse, cropped above the waist to suit the climate. For the noble class in the different polities and kingdoms around the islands, these articles of clothing were bordered in gold. It is important to note that despite some similarities in the modes of dress before and as Spanish colonization began, each indigenous group took on different styles reflecting their beliefs, climate, and trade relations. Well into the colonial period, the dress of the people from the highlands of Northern Luzon, Palawan, and Mindanao, as well as people of Sulu had managed to evade Western influence due to their intense resistance to Spanish rule.³ And, despite the susceptibility of the lowlands and Visayan islands to foreign influence, you will also find that a lot of the articles of clothing present in the pre-colonial period would be retained in the Filipino fashion lexicon for the centuries to come.

THE 1600s – 1700s

Photo: Illustration of mestizos from the Carta Hydrographica y Chorographica de las Yslas Filipinas (1734)

the lowlands and Visayan islands, to which the Spaniards had better access, saw their everyday wear undergo Hispanicization from the beginning of Spanish colonization in the later half of the sixteenth century to the end of the eighteenth century.

Illustration of a datu and binukot from Historia natural del sitio, fertilidad y calidad de las Islas e Indios de Bisayas (1668)

The establishment of new ways of dress was not only necessary for the subjugation of the natives and the assertion of soft power, it was also a reaction of the Spanish friars following their being scandalized by sparse clothing of the natives. Unlike the skirts of the largely unconquered Moro people, the tapis of Luzon and patadyong of Visayas were lengthened to meet the Christian standards of modesty.⁴ The Spaniards began to call the skirt by the Spanish word saya. The baro, now referred to as camisa by the Spaniards, was also made longer to suit Spanish tastes and notions of decency. Because it was sheer, women also had to wear undergarments as an extra layer of covering, but there was a front opening around the neckline.

Illustration of indios from the Carta Hydrographica y Chorographica de las Yslas Filipinas (1734)

the women also began to wear the cobija, a veil typically black in color and draped over the head. These veils signified the stronger assimilation of the women into Christianity and a more European way of living overall.

THE 1830s – 1860s

hile much of the Spanish colonial period prioritized Christianization and assimilation with European culture, the people who lived through the latter years of the period were more concerned with making distinctions among the different classes that made up the complex social hierarchy of the time.

While much of the Spanish colonial period prioritized Christianization and assimilation with European culture, the people who lived through the latter years of the period were more concerned with making distinctions among the different classes that made up the complex social hierarchy of the time.

Unidentified subject, 1860s to 1870s, from the Rizal album, Lopez Museum and Library

Piña pañuelo with drawn thread embroidery, nineteenth century, from the Intramuros Administration

ccording to historian Stephanie Coo, the traje, literally meaning “suit” or “ensemble” in Spanish, was a compromise “in a place that was administratively Spanish-governed, economically Anglo-Chinese, and at the same time colonial and tropical.”

The construction, style, and silhouette of the ensemble were European, but the materials and ornamentation were native,⁵ reflective of the mestiza’s status as a woman of mixed race and with access to certain luxuries.

According to historian Stephanie Coo, the traje, literally meaning “suit” or “ensemble” in Spanish, was a compromise “in a place that was administratively Spanish-governed, economically Anglo-Chinese, and at the same time colonial and tropical.”

The construction, style, and silhouette of the ensemble were European, but the materials and ornamentation were native,⁵ reflective of the mestiza’s status as a woman of mixed race and with access to certain luxuries.

of the traje’s upper half was the camisa, another term used in reference to the baro, which at this point in time had longer pagoda or bell sleeves and intricate patterns on the expensive piña or pineapple cloth. A pañuelo, usually of the same design and material as the camisa, was worn around the neck and over the shoulders.⁶

Unidentified subject, late 1850s to 1860s, from the collection of Ramon Villegas

Illustrations by Rafael del Casal from Fashionable Filipinas, 2015

crinolines were being used to create volume in skirts, but silhouette manipulation of this sort did not hold in the Philippines. Stage and costume designer Gino Gonzales, in an interview for the podcast Dressed: The History of Fashion, stated that this is because of two things: the tropical climate, which made crinolines impractical, and “the general abhorrence of Asians for body restriction.”⁷ Still, as voluminous skirts were the vogue of the time, mestizas took to wearing layers of petticoats or enaguas under their sayas. And other than aesthetic value, volume also provided the concealment of the woman’s natural figure, in keeping with the Christian culture of propriety.

Unidentified subject, 1860s to 1870s, from the Rizal album, Lopez Museum and Library

India Elegante, Ilustración Filipina by Baltasar Girarudier, 1859, from the Gallery of Prints, Manila

Normally, a tapis would be draped over the saya to tame volume, but the mestizas chose to forgo this in order to show off skirts of more luxurious material and design, usually made of imported fabrics. This mode of dress is called saya de suelta. Additionally, Gonzales writes that the tapis over the saya was more popular with the working class women, who used the tapis as an extra layer for their thinner skirts.⁸ Furthermore, Coo finds that the mestizas’ refusal to wear tapis could also be attributed to their association of the cloth with the aprons of their indio (native) servants.⁹It appears, however, that not all upper class women were of this thinking: the indias of the upper class used the tapis to create a flared effect in the skirt: the saya would be tightly contained by the tapis in the upper half before bursting out at the bottom.¹⁰

These ways of dress date back to the 1830s¹¹ and continue in prominence through the 1860s. Gonzales and Mark Lewis Higgins track more of the changes to the traje in the years after through their book, Fashionable Filipinas: An Evolution of the Philippine National Dress in Photographs, 1860-1960.

THE 1900s – 1910s

he coming of the Americans at the turn of the century ushered in an era of various shifts in culture. Gonzales cites the American teachers, who arrived in the Philippines in 1901 aboard the USS Thomas, as a primary influence in the adaptation of the serpentina into Filipino dress.¹³

The coming of the Americans at the turn of the century ushered in an era of various shifts in culture. Gonzales cites the American teachers, who arrived in the Philippines in 1901 aboard the USS Thomas, as a primary influence in the adaptation of the serpentina into Filipino dress.¹³

“Heartily dedicated to Elisa. Losing,” late 1920s, from the collection of Augusto Gonzalez III

“Miss Teresa Acosta. Remembrance from L. C,” late 1900s to 1910s, from the collection of Gino Gonzales

Edwardian serpentine skirts, the local skirts of the 1900s and 1910s were fitted at the waist and flowed down with a flare, to floor-touching hemline and train. The camisa’s sleeves also saw changes, shortened to around elbow length and pushed out to extend the width of the shoulders and create a more top-heavy look.¹⁴

Illustrations by Rafael del Casal from Fashionable Filipinas, 2015

Illustration by Rafael del Casal from Fashionable Filipinas, 2015

During the Edwardian era, there was a preference for brighter, paler, and more cheerful colors.

The “serpentine” skirt, which flares outward, becomes fashionable

Illustration by Rafael del Casal from Fashionable Filipinas, 2015

Unidentified subject, 1913, from the collection of Ramon Villegas

Doña Adela Paterno y Devera Ignacio, 1914, from the collection of Augusto Gonzalez III

It became a popular practice to wear skirts, camisas, pañuelos, and sobrefalda (sheer overskirt) with matching designs,¹⁵ bringing the terno to the fore.

Unidentified subject, 1900s, from the collection of Augusto Gonzalez III

Like the "traje", “terno” refers to an ensemble. The key difference is that while the traje did not necessarily have matching pieces, the main point of the terno was coordination.

“Terno,” after all, means “to match.”¹⁶ As Gonzales writes, “The components used precisely duplicated embroidery, appliqué and careful colour co-ordination between the upper and lower garments. Starched cañamazo, a stiff open-weave material from Switzerland, babarahin, a locally woven textile from Batangas, and renggue, a combination of abaca and piña fibres from Aklan, were used for upper garments that demanded rigidity.”¹⁷

he Second World War stifled any further evoltion. The terno, a signifier of social standing and the privileges enjoyed with it, fell out of favor for people, especially those who could no longer afford to have it.¹⁹ Wartime demanded practicality, and so the terno was either hidden away or cut up to create simpler pieces of clothing. By the end of the 1940s, the colas had completely disappeared.

The Second World War stifled any further evoltion. The terno, a signifier of social standing and the privileges enjoyed with it, fell out of favor for people, especially those who could no longer afford to have it.¹⁹ Wartime demanded practicality, and so the terno was either hidden away or cut up to create simpler pieces of clothing. By the end of the 1940s, the colas had completely disappeared.

Carmen Rosales, Liwayway Arceo, and Norma Blancaflor on the cover of Shin Seiki: Bagong Araw – New Era, 1944, from the Lopez Museum and Library

Then, as the Philippines began to make sense of its newfound freedom from American colonization as well as the Japanese occupation...

“Naly” and “Pepe,” 1940s, from the collection of Maria Lopez Ramirez

Celia Diaz Laurel in a gown by Salvacion Lim, 1948, from Slim’s Fashion and Arts School

Pacita de los Reyes in a gown by Ramon Valera, 1947, from the Lopez Museum and Library

The pañuelo-less terno emerged, embraced by the youth and the designers. Despite this change, pañuelos were still used on wedding ternos to convey a sense of the bride’s purity. And by the 1950s, the terno would be widely known as a dress with a low neckline and flat, rigid butterfly sleeves. The simplicity of this definition left much space for the terno to evolve several times over.

From fashion show archive “Fashion on Wings,” possibly designed by Casimiro Abad, 1950s, from the Lopez Museum and Library

vents attended by the wealthy throughout the 50s and 60s encouraged the designers in their employ to keep innovating. Appliqués popped out more, dresses sparkled, and the terno was molded into various forms such as the mermaid cut and the tulip.

Events attended by the wealthy throughout the 50s and 60s encouraged the designers in their employ to keep innovating. Appliqués popped out more, dresses sparkled, and the terno was molded into various forms such as the mermaid cut and the tulip.

Photo: From fashion show archive “Fashion on Wings,” possibly designed by Casimiro Abad, 1950s, from the Lopez Museum and Library

1. Leila Benitez in a terno from Millie’s, 1957, from the Lopez Museum and Library 2. Cristina Galang, 1953, from the collection of Alex R. Castro 3. Edith Nakpil Rabat in a terno by Salvacion Lim, 1956, from Slim’s Fashion and Arts School 4. Dolores Arguelles Panlilio in a terno by Salvacion Lim, 1952, from Slim’s Fashion and Arts School 5. Cielito Legaspi in a terno by Ruben Panis, 1950s, from the collection of Rowell Santiago 6. Imelda Romualdez in a terno by Ramon Valera, 1950s 7. Chona Recto Kasten, 1960, from the Lopez Museum and Library 8. Terno by Salvacion Lim, late 1950s, from Slim’s Fashion and Arts School 9. Imelda Romualdez in a terno by Ramon Valera, 1950s

Bar jacket by Christian Dior, Spring/Summer 1947, from the Metropolitan Museum of Art

Junon by Christian Dior, Fall/Winter 1949–1950, from the Metropolitan Museum of Art

onzales attributes Christian Dior’s “New Look” as a primary influence on the avant-garde renderings of the terno, which mirrored the post-war flourishing of haute couture in the West.

Gonzales attributes Christian Dior’s “New Look” as a primary influence on the avant-garde renderings of the terno, which mirrored the post-war flourishing of haute couture in the West.

THE 1970s – 1980s

By the 70s and 80s, the terno would be “relegated to formal wear” and costume²⁰, only worn either by elderly ladies in church functions or by women of the elite. Among them were Imelda Marcos and her “Blue Ladies,” friends and supporters of the Marcoses, who through their patronage to the terno created a competitive environment for Filipino fashion designers to make the best pieces.

Imelda Marcos at the Elysee Palace, Paris, 1976. Photo from Agence France Presse.

During this time, the terno underwent another transformation, calcifying into one of the modern terno’s more popular silhouettes. At Imelda’s request, Ramon Valera made the sleeves shorter and adjusted the neckline circumference to create dresses that emphasized wide shoulders, a tighter waistline, and an elongated neck.²¹

Imelda Marcos and Imee Marcos in designs by Ramon Valera, 1971. Photo from Sen. Imee Marcos (FB).

Cory Aquino in a set by Auggie Cordero, 1989. Photo by Romeo Gacad.

After Corazon Aquino was made president in 1986, the terno—expensive and seen as aristocratic—fell out of fashion, with the public taking more interest in the more affordable Western casual wear that included trousers. But, just like after the Second World War, the terno would be rebirthed anew.

One of Yssa Inumerable’s winning Balintawak designs for Ternocon III, photo by Kimberly Montes

The twentieth century saw ternos shadow the silhouettes of dresses from the West. And then in the late 90s and at the beginning of the new millennium, it took on many new forms outside the West and the Philippines.

With globalization, designers have been pushed to assert a Filipino identity, as well as take notes from other designers abroad.

Photo: One of Yssa Inumerable’s winning Balintawak designs for Ternocon III, photo by Kimberly Montes

With globalization, designers have been pushed to assert a Filipino identity, as well as take notes from other designers abroad. In dealing with this tension, there became a conflation of the terno sleeves, wide and flat, with the small “teacup” sleeves. Of this, Gonzales says, “The rationale behind the shrinkage could only be ascribed to the tokenism in wearing the national dress while trying not to make it look obviously like the Philippine terno. It is a half-hearted gesture, deeply rooted in the desire to mask national identity and tragically resulting in a generic garment with puff sleeves.”²²

First, second, and fourth looks (left to right): designs by Cary Santiago for the Philippine Terno Gala, photos by Mark Philip Dales. Third look by Hannah Adrias, photo by Miguel Alomajan.

According to him, the history of the terno is a history of “constant diminishment,”²³ and with the butterfly sleeve being the last component of the authentic terno, it’s important that the designers of today preserve it, and even try to revive the other parts of the dress that had been lost.

Terno inspired by Vincent Van Gogh’s The Starry Night, designed by Hannah Adrias, photo by Miguel Alomajan

Terno inspired by Vincent Van Gogh’s The Starry Night, designed by Renz Reyes, photo by Miguel Alomajan

Terno by Glynn Alley Magtibay, photo by @takumori_

Ensemble by Ternocon III third-placer and Ramon Valera Award winner Glady Rose Pantua, photo by Kimberly Montes

Terno by Joey Samson, photo by @takumori_

Balintawak by Glady Rose Pantua, photo by Kimberly Montes

Ensemble by Ternocon III winner Yssa Inumerable, photo by Kimberly Montes

Ensemble by Ricky Toledo and Chito Vijandre, photo by @takumori_

Design by Ternocon II second-placer and Pura Escurdia Award winner Gabbie Sarenas, photo by Kimberly Montes

Design by Dennis Lustico, photo by @takumori_

From left to right: Terno by Glynn Alley Magtibay, photo by @takumori_, Ensemble by Ternocon III third-placer and Ramon Valera Award winner Glady Rose Pantua, photo by Kimberly Montes, Terno by Joey Samson, photo by @takumori_, Balintawak by Glady Rose Pantua, photo by Kimberly Montes, Ensemble by Ternocon III winner Yssa Inumerable, photo by Kimberly Montes, Ensemble by Ricky Toledo and Chito Vijandre, photo by @takumori_, Design by Ternocon II second-placer and Pura Escurdia Award winner Gabbie Sarenas, photo by Kimberly Montes, Design by Dennis Lustico, photo by @takumori_

From first to last row: Terno by Glynn Alley Magtibay, photo by @takumori_, Ensemble by Ternocon III third-placer and Ramon Valera Award winner Glady Rose Pantua, photo by Kimberly Montes, Terno by Joey Samson, photo by @takumori_, Balintawak by Glady Rose Pantua, photo by Kimberly Montes, Ensemble by Ternocon III winner Yssa Inumerable, photo by Kimberly Montes, Ensemble by Ricky Toledo and Chito Vijandre, photo by @takumori_, Design by Ternocon II second-placer and Pura Escurdia Award winner Gabbie Sarenas, photo by Kimberly Montes, Design by Dennis Lustico, photo by @takumori_

nd so, seeking to educate and excite younger generations of the fashion-savvy, Gonzales collaborated with Bench and the Cultural Center of the Philippines to establish TernoCon, a convention and competition that pushes the terno and Balintawak to the front of the Filipino fashion scene. In 2018, when it was first conceived, established designers and masters of the terno like Inno Sotto, Len Cabili, Cary Santiago, and JC Buendia mentored budding designers in creating contemporary renditions of the terno.

And so, seeking to educate and excite younger generations of the fashion-savvy, Gonzales collaborated with Bench and the Cultural Center of the Philippines to establish TernoCon, a convention and competition that pushes the terno and Balintawak to the front of the Filipino fashion scene. In 2018, when it was first conceived, established designers and masters of the terno like Inno Sotto, Len Cabili, Cary Santiago, and JC Buendia mentored budding designers in creating contemporary renditions of the terno.

Yssa Inumerable’s winning entries inspired by the Gibson girl for Ternocon III, photo by Ed Simon

designer Yssa Inumerable won first prize (also called the Pacita Longos Award) for her Balintawak designs, which boasted Western silhouettes and fun pastel colors and patterns on locally-sourced fabric.²⁴ Inumerable’s designs are a reflection of what the terno is in essence: a testament to the Filipino’s dealing with binaries via reconciliation instead of rejection. Of what the terno stands for, Gonzales writes, “we see harmonious visual representations of the diversity of cultural influences on the terno and, ultimately, the Filipino.”²⁵

Pacita Longos Award winner Yssa Inumerable (center) with Margie Moran (left) and Ben Chan (right), photo by Ed Simon

What makes the terno distinctly Filipino is its history—embedded in which is the struggle to be distinctly Filipino through material and visual elements while still being subjected to forces of colonization and globalization. Its future is now, in the dressmakers who choose either to innovate or to take more traditional routes (or to do both). The terno endures the currents of trends that have come and gone, and also keeps something from the tides. Some might take this malleability as a sign of the terno’s weakness, but one thing is for certain:

Designs by Glady Rose Pantua (photo by Kimberly Montes), Bree Esplanada, Ricky Toledo and Chito Vijandre, Geom Hernandez, Hannah Adrias (photo by Miguel Alomajan), and Bon Hansen Reyes. Photos by @takumori_

Clockwise from the top right: designs by Glady Rose Pantua (photo by Kimberly Montes), Bree Esplanada, Ricky Toledo and Chito Vijandre, Geom Hernandez, Hannah Adrias (photo by Miguel Alomajan), and Bon Hansen Reyes. Photos by @takumori_

DISCLAIMER: We have thoroughly researched and verified the accuracy of our stories to the best of our capabilities. If you come across any errors, inaccuracies, or have questions about our sources, feel free to contact us via email at francesto927@gmail.com.

William Henry Scott, Barangay: Sixteenth-Century Philippine Culture and Society (Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1994), 29.

Gino Gonzales, “The Philippine Dress: 500 Years of Straddling Polarities,” Arts of Asia, September 26, 2022, https://artsofasia.com/2022/09/09/the-philippine-dress-500-years-of-straddling-polarities/.

Stephanie Marie R. Coo, “Clothing and the Colonial Culture of Appearances in Nineteenth Century Spanish Philippines (1820-1896)” (dissertation, 2014), 75.

Gonzales, “The Philippine Dress: 500 Years of Straddling Polarities.”

Stephanie Coo, Clothing the Colony: Nineteenth-Century Philippine Sartorial Culture, 1820-1896 (Ateneo de Manila University, 2019), 125.

Gonzales.

“Fashionable Filipinas, an Interview with Gino Gonzales” (iHeart Podcast Network, November 6, 2018), https://open.spotify.com/episode/1OGUds630E0jEttQt7v7KY?si=2ac375eb37ff43eb.

Gonzales.

Coo, Clothing the Colony: Nineteenth-Century Philippine Sartorial Culture, 1820-1896, 152.

Gonzales.

Coo, 125.

Gino Gonzales and Mark Lewis Higgins, Fashionable Filipinas: An Evolution of the Philippine National Dress in Photographs, 1860-1960 (Taguig City, Philippines: Slim’s Legacy Project, Inc. and Suyen Corporation, Inc., 2015).

Gonzales.

Gonzales and Higgins, Fashionable Filipinas.

Ibid.

“Fashionable Filipinas, an Interview with Gino Gonzales”

Gonzales.

Gonzales and Higgins.

Gonzales.

Ibid.

Marge C Enriquez, “Ternocon–and How Imelda Marcos Changed the Terno,” Inquirer, May 24, 2018, https://lifestyle.inquirer.net/295345/ternocon-imelda-marcos-changed-terno/#ixzz8DjjCVKRd.

Ibid.

Christian San Jose, “The Terno Is Back from the Baul. Now What?,” Nolisoli, March 6, 2021, https://nolisoli.ph/68684/terno-ternocon-2020-gino-gonzales-csanjose-20191004/.

Celine Mallari, “Every Look From This Year’s TernoCon,” Vogue Philippines, February 5, 2023, https://vogue.ph/fashion/every-look-from-ternocon-2023/.

Gonzales.

Coo, Stephanie. “Clothing and the Colonial Culture of Appearances in Nineteenth Century Spanish Philippines (1820-1896).” PhD dissertation, Université Nice Sophia Antipolis, 2014.

———. Clothing the Colony: Nineteenth-Century Philippine Sartorial Culture, 1820-1896. Ateneo de Manila University, 2019.

Enriquez, Marge C. “Ternocon–and How Imelda Marcos Changed the Terno.” Inquirer, May 24, 2018. https://lifestyle.inquirer.net/295345/ternocon-imelda-marcos-changed-terno/#ixzz8DjjCVKRd.

“Fashionable Filipinas, an Interview with Gino Gonzales.” Interview by April Calahan and Cassidy Zachary. iHeart Podcast Network, November 6, 2018. https://open.spotify.com/episode/1OGUds630E0jEttQt7v7KY?si=c21f79fc6ac8478d.

Gonzales, Gino. “The Philippine Dress: 500 Years of Straddling Polarities.” Arts of Asia, September 26, 2022. https://artsofasia.com/2022/09/09/the-philippine-dress-500-years-of-straddling-polarities/.

Gonzales, Gino, and Mark Lewis Higgins. Fashionable Filipinas: An Evolution of the Philippine National Dress in Photographs, 1860-1960. Taguig City, Philippines: Slim’s Legacy Project, Inc. and Suyen Corporation, Inc., 2015.

Mallari, Celine. “Every Look From This Year’s TernoCon.” Vogue Philippines, February 5, 2023. https://vogue.ph/fashion/every-look-from-ternocon-2023/.

San Jose, Christian. “The Terno Is Back from the Baul. Now What?” Nolisoli, March 6, 2021. https://nolisoli.ph/68684/terno-ternocon-2020-gino-gonzales-csanjose-20191004/.

Scott, William Henry. Barangay: Sixteenth-Century Philippine Culture and Society. Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1994.